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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 2:15:48 GMT 7
RESEARCH METHODS for BUSINESS STUDENTS 6E (Pearson Publisher 2012) Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill
KEY PRINCIPLES OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 outlines the nature of research and, more specifically, of business and management research. The basic versus applied research and relevance debates are considered and advice offered regarding keeping a reflective diary or notebook. The chapter concludes with an overview of the purpose and structure of the book. Chapter 2 is written to assist students in the generation of ideas, which will help them to choose a suitable research topic, and offers advice on what makes a good research topic. If your students have already been given a research topic, perhaps by an organisation or tutor, they will need to refine it into one that is feasible, and should still therefore read this chapter. After their idea has been generated and refined, the chapter discusses how to turn this idea into clear research question(s) and objectives. (Research questions and objectives are referred to throughout the book.) Finally, the chapter provides advice on how to write a research proposal. The importance of the critical literature review to students’ research is discussed in Chapter 3. This chapter outlines what a critical review needs to include and the range of primary, secondary and tertiary literature sources available. The chapter explains the purpose of reviewing the literature, discusses a range of search strategies and contains advice on how to plan and undertake a search and to write the review. The processes of identifying search terms and searching using on-line databases and the Internet are outlined. It also offers advice on how to record items and to evaluate their relevance as well as discussing plagiarism. Chapter 4 addresses the issue of understanding different research philosophies including positivism, realism, interpretivism and pragmatism. Within this the functionalist, interpretive, radical humanist and radical structuralist paradigms are discussed. Deductive, inductive and abductive approaches to research are also considered. In this chapter, students are challenged to think about their own values and how they view the world and the impact this will have on the way they undertake their research. These ideas are developed further in Chapter 5, which explores the process of research design. As part of this the methodological choice of quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods is considered. A variety of research strategies are explored and longitudinal and cross-sectional time horizons discussed. Consideration is given to the implications of design choice for the credibility of students’ research findings and conclusions. Chapter 6 explores issues related to gaining access and to research ethics. It offers advice on how to gain access both to organisations and to individuals using both traditional and Internet-mediated strategies. Potential ethical issues are discussed in relation to each stage of the research process and different data collection methods. Issues of data protection are also introduced. A range of the probability and non-probability sampling techniques available for use by students in their research is explained in Chapter 7. The chapter considers why sampling is necessary, and looks at issues of sample size and response rates. Advice on how to relate the choice of sampling techniques to the research topic is given, and techniques for assessing the representativeness of those who respond are discussed. Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 are concerned with different methods of obtaining data. The use of secondary data is discussed in Chapter 8, which introduces the variety of data that are likely to be available and suggests ways in which they can be used. Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data are discussed, and a range of techniques for locating these data, including using the Internet, is suggested. Chapter 8 provides an indication of the myriad of sources available via the Internet and also offers advice to students on how to evaluate the suitability of secondary data for their research. In contrast, Chapter 9 is concerned with collecting primary data through observation. The chapter examines two types of observation: participant observation and structured observation. Practical advice on using each is offered, and particular attention is given to ensuring that the data students obtain are both valid and reliable. Chapter 10 is also concerned with collecting primary data, this time using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews. The appropriateness of using these interviews in relation to different research strategies is discussed. Advice on how to undertake such interviews is offered, including the conduct of focus groups, Internet-mediated and telephone interviews. Particular attention is given to ensuring that the data collected are both reliable and valid. Chapter 11 is the final chapter concerned with collecting data. It introduces students to the use of both self-administered and interviewer-administered questionnaires, and explores their advantages and disadvantages. Practical advice is offered on the process of designing, piloting and administering Internet-mediated, postal, delivery and collection and telephone questionnaires to enhance their response rates. Particular attention is again given to ensuring that the data collected are both reliable and valid. Analysis of data is covered in Chapters 12 and 13. Chapter 12 outlines and illustrates the main issues that students need to consider when preparing data for quantitative analysis and when analysing these data by computer. Different types of data are defined, and advice is given on how to create a data matrix and to code data. Practical advice is also offered on the analysis of these data using analysis software. The most appropriate diagrams to explore and illustrate data are discussed, and suggestions are made about the most appropriate statistics to use to describe data, to explore relationships and to examine trends. Chapter 13 outlines and discusses the main approaches available to students to analyse data qualitatively both manually and using Computer Aided Qualitative Analysis Software (CAQDAS). The nature of qualitative data and issues associated with transcription are discussed. The use of deductively based and inductively based analytical approaches is discussed and different types of procedures are outlined to analyse students’ qualitative data. A number of aids that will help students to analyse these data and record their ideas about progressing their research are also discussed. Chapter 14 helps students with the structure, content and style of their final project report (dissertation) and any associated oral presentations. Differences between consultancy (management) reports and project reports (dissertations) are outlined. Above all, the chapter encourages students to see writing as an intrinsic part of the research process that should not be left until everything else is completed. In addition, there are four appendices including guidance on author-date (Harvard, American Psychological Association) and numeric (Vancouver) styles of referencing and guidelines for non-discriminatory language. The sixth edition also includes an extensive glossary of over 500 research methods terms.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 2:41:36 GMT 7
BOOK STRUCTURE & HOW TO USE IN YOUR STUDY
Using this book in your second or final year of studyUsing this book as a new returner to academic study
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 2:52:13 GMT 7
CHAPTER 1 Business and management research
• Research Methods for Business Students is designed to help students to undertake a research project whether they are an undergraduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a manager. It is designed as an introductory text and will guide them through the entire research process.
• Business and management research involves undertaking systematic research to find out things. It is transdisciplinary, and engages with both theory and practice.
• All business and management research projects can be placed on a basic-applied continuum according to their purpose and context.
• Wherever student’s research projects lies on this continuum, they should undertake their research with rigour. To do this they will need to pay careful attention to the entire research process.
• In order to enhance students learning during their research we recommend they keep a reflective diary or notebook.
• In this book, research is represented as a multi-stage process; however, this process is rarely straightforward and will involve both reflecting on and revising stages already undertaken and forward planning.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 2:53:52 GMT 7
CHAPTER 2 Formulating and clarifying the research topic
• The process of formulating and clarifying a student’s research topic is a key part of their research project.
• Attributes of a good research topic do not vary a great deal between universities. The most important of these is that a student’s research topic will meet the requirements of the examining body.
• Generating and refining research ideas makes use of a variety of techniques. It is important that students use a variety of techniques, including those involving rational thinking and those involving creative thinking.
• Further refinement of research ideas may be achieved through using the Delphi technique, conducting a preliminary inquiry and integrating ideas by working these up and narrowing them down.
• A clearly defined research question expresses what a student’s research is about and will become the focal point of their research project.
• Well-formulated research objectives operationalise how a student intends to conduct their research by providing a set of coherent and connected set of steps to answer their research question.
• It will be important for students to use academic theory to inform their research topic irrespective of the approach they will use to conduct their research project. • A research proposal is a structured plan of a student’s proposed research project.
• A well thought out and written research proposal has the potential to provide a student with a clear specification of the what, why, how, when and where of their research project.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 2:58:07 GMT 7
CHAPTER 3 Critically reviewing the literature
• A critical review of the literature is necessary to help develop a thorough understanding of and insight into previous research that relates to the research question(s) and objectives. The review will set students’ research in context by critically discussing and referencing work that has already been undertaken, drawing out key points and presenting them in a logically argued way, and highlighting those areas where the research will provide fresh insights. It will lead the reader into subsequent sections of the project report. • There is no one correct structure for a critical review, although it is helpful to think of it as a funnel in which students start at a more general level prior to narrowing down to their specific research question(s) and objectives. • Literature sources can be divided into three categories: primary, secondary and tertiary. In reality, these categories often overlap. Students’ use of these resources will depend on their research question(s) and objectives. Some may use only tertiary and secondary literature. For others, they may need to locate primary literature as well. • When planning a literature search students need to: - have clearly defined research question(s) and objectives;
- define the parameters of their search;
- generate search terms;
- discuss their ideas as widely as possible.
• Techniques to help students in this include brainstorming and relevance trees. • Students’ literature search is likely to be undertaken using a variety of approaches in tandem. These will include: - searching using tertiary sources and the Internet;
- following up references in articles they have already read;
- scanning and browsing secondary literature in the library.
• Students should not forget to make precise notes of the search processes they have used and their results. • Once obtained, the literature must be evaluated for its relevance to their research question(s) and objectives using clearly defined criteria. This must include a consideration of each item’s currency. Each item must be read and noted. Bibliographic details, a brief description of the content and appropriate supplementary information should also be recorded. • Care should be taken when writing the literature review not to plagiarise the work of others.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 2:59:47 GMT 7
CHAPTER 4 Understanding research philosophies and approaches
• The term research philosophy relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge.
• An individual’s research philosophy contains important assumptions about the way in which she/he views the world.
• There are three major ways of thinking about research philosophy: epistemology, ontology and axiology. Each contains important differences that will influence the way in which students think about the research process.
• Pragmatism holds that the most important determinant of the epistemology, ontology and axiology adopted is the research question.
• Ontology is a branch of philosophy which is concerned with the nature of social phenomena as entities.
• Objectivism is the ontological position which holds that social entities exist in reality external to social actors, whereas the subjectivist view is that social phenomena are created through the perceptions and consequent actions of social actors.
• Epistemology concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study. • Positivism relates to the philosophical stance of the natural scientist. This entails working with an observable social reality and the end product can be law-like generalisations similar to those in the physical and natural sciences.
• The essence of realism is that what the senses show us is reality, is the truth: that objects have an existence independent of the human mind.
• Interpretivism is an epistemology that advocates that it is necessary for the researcher to understand the differences between humans in our role as social actors.
• Perceptions and consequent actions of social actors.
• Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about values.
• Social science paradigms can be used in management and business research to generate fresh insights into real-life issues and problems. The four paradigms explained in the chapter are: functionalist; interpretive; radical humanist; and radical structuralist.
• There are three main research approaches: deduction, induction and abduction. With deduction a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses) are developed and a research strategy designed to test the hypothesis. With induction, data are collected and a theory developed as a result of the data analysis. With abduction, data are used to explore a phenomenon, identify themes and explain patterns, to generate a new or modify an existing theory which is subsequently tested, often through additional data collection.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:00:58 GMT 7
CHAPTER 5 Formulating the research design
• Research design is the way a research question and objectives are operationalised into a research project. The research design process involves a series of decisions that need to combine into a coherent research project.
• Research design will be informed by a student’s research philosophy.
• A choice has to be made between using quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods.
• The nature of a student’s research design will be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory, or a combination of these.
• A decision will be made to use one or more research strategies, related to the nature of the research question and objectives and to ensure coherence with the other elements of the research design. • The research strategies discussed were: Experiment; Survey; Archival Research; Case Study; Ethnography; Action Research; Grounded Theory; and Narrative Inquiry.
• Choice of quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods and related research strategy or strategies will also be related to the choice of an appropriate time frame.
• Research ethics are a critical part in formulating a research design. While the exact approach to research design will be governed by ethical considerations, different research designs will also reveal different ethical concerns.
• Establishing the quality of research is also a critical part of formulating a research design. Researchers from different research traditions have developed different criteria to judge and ensure the quality of research.
• Practical considerations will also affect research design including the role of the researcher.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:02:14 GMT 7
CHAPTER 6 Negotiating access and research ethics
• Access and ethics are critical aspects for the conduct of research.
• Different types of access exist: traditional access, Internet-mediated access, intranet-mediated access and hybrid access. Each of these types of access is associated with issues that may affect students’ ability to collect suitable, high-quality data.
• Different levels of access have been identified: physical access, continuing access and cognitive access.
• Feasibility and sufficiency are important determinants of what students choose to research and how they will conduct it.
• Issues related to gaining access will depend to some extent on a student’s role as either an external researcher or a participant researcher.
• Students’ approach to research may combine traditional access with Internet- or intranet-mediated access leading to the use of a hybrid access strategy.
• There are a range of strategies to help students to gain access to organisations and to intended participants within them.
• Research ethics refer to the standards of behaviour that guide students conduct in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of their work, or are affected by it. • Potential ethical issues should be recognised and considered from the outset of students’ research and are one of the criteria against which their research is judged. Issues may be anticipated by using codes of ethics, ethical guidelines and ethical principles.
• The Internet has facilitated access for particular types of research strategy; however, its use is associated with a range of ethical concerns and even dilemmas in certain types of research, notably related to respecting rights of privacy and copyright.
• Ethical concerns can occur at all stages of a student’s research project: when seeking access, during data collection, as they analyse data and when they report their findings.
• Qualitative research is likely to lead to a greater range of ethical concerns in comparison with quantitative research, although all research methods have specific ethical issues associated with them.
• Ethical concerns are also associated with the ‘power relationship’ between the researcher and those who grant access, and the researcher’s role (as external researcher, internal researcher or internal consultant).
• Students also need to consider their own safety very carefully when planning and conducting research.
• Further ethical and legal concerns are associated with data protection and data management, affecting the collection, processing, storage and use of personal and confidential data. Students need to comply carefully with data protection legislation when using personal data, to protect the privacy of their data subjects and to avoid the risk of any harm occurring.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:04:07 GMT 7
CHAPTER 7 Selecting samples
• Choice of sampling techniques is dependent upon the feasibility and sensibility of collecting data to answer a research question(s) and address the objectives from the entire population. For populations of fewer than 50, it is usually more sensible to collect data from the entire population rather than use probability sampling. • Choice of sampling technique or techniques is dependent upon the research question(s) and objectives: - research question(s) and objectives which necessitate a statistical estimate of the characteristics of the population from a sample require probability samples;
- research question(s) and objectives that do not require such generalisations can make use of non-probability sampling techniques.
• Factors such as the confidence that is needed in the findings, accuracy required and likely categories for analyses will impact on the size of the sample that needs to be collected: - statistical analyses usually require a minimum sample size of 30;
- research question(s) and objectives, which do not require statistical estimation, may need far smaller samples.
• Sample size and the technique used are also influenced by the availability of resources, in particular financial support and time available to select the sample and collect, enter into a computer and analyse the data. • Probability sampling techniques all necessitate some form of sampling frame so they are often more time consuming than non-probability techniques. Probability sampling techniques include simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster and multi-stage sampling. • Where it is not possible to construct a sampling frame, it is necessary to use non-probability sampling techniques. These include techniques such as quota, purposive, snowball, self-selection and convenience sampling. • Non-probability sampling techniques provide an opportunity to select the sample purposively and to reach difficult-to-identify members of the population. • For many research projects a combination of different sampling techniques are often needed. • Choices of sampling techniques will be dependent upon the researcher’s ability to gain access to organisations. The considerations summarised earlier must therefore be tempered with an understanding of what is practically possible.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:05:46 GMT 7
CHAPTER 8 Using secondary data
• Data that have already been collected for some other purpose, perhaps processed and subsequently stored are termed secondary data. There are three main types of secondary data: documentary, survey and multiple source. • Most research projects require some combination of secondary and primary data to answer the research question(s) and meet the objectives. Secondary data can be used in a variety of ways. These include: - to provide the main data set;
- to provide longitudinal (time series data);
- to provide area-based data;
- to compare with, or set in context, research findings.
• Any secondary data that are used will have been collected for a specific purpose. This purpose may not match that of the student who is using it. In addition, the secondary data are likely to be less current than any data collected by the researcher. • Finding the secondary data required are a matter of detective work. This will involve: - establishing if the sort of data required is likely to be available;
- locating the precise data.
• Once located, secondary data sources must be assessed to ensure their overall suitability for the research question(s) and objectives. In particular, attention must be paid to the measurement validity and coverage of the data. • The precise suitability of the secondary data must also be evaluated. The evaluation should include both reliability and any likely measurement bias. A judgement can then be made on the basis of the costs and benefits of using the data in comparison to alternative sources. • When assessing costs and benefits it is important to remember that secondary data which is not completely reliable and contains some bias is better than no data at all if it enables the research question(s) to be answered partially and objectives met.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:06:57 GMT 7
CHAPTER 9 Collecting primary data through observation
• Participant observation is a qualitative approach that allows the researcher to participate in or closely observe the lives and activities of those whom they are studying. It is used to attempt to get to the root of ‘what is going on’ in a wide range of social settings.
• Four types of participant observation are distinguished by two separate dimensions: whether the researcher’s identity is revealed or concealed and the extent to which the researcher participates in the activities being observed.
• For a full-time student, choice of one of these types will be influenced by a number of factors including the nature of the research question and objectives, their ability to negotiate access, the time available to devote to research and their circumstances.
• For a part-time student, in employment choice of one of these types will be influenced by factors including the nature of the research question and objectives, ability to simultaneously undertake a job and manage the demands of participant observation, being able to maintain objectivity and ensuring that closeness to informants does not lead to conflict.
• Participant observation is principally conducted through the researcher being physically present although variations may involve the use of streamed, recorded or downloaded material. It leads to the production of different types of data that facilitate data analysis. Data are normally analysed like other qualitative data, with the intention of developing theory. • A prevalent form of data analysis used in participant observation is analytic induction. This may lead to an initial hypothesis being redeveloped more than once.
• Participant observation has high ecological validity but may be affected by observer error, observer bias and observer effects. These issues may be minimised or overcome by observer familiarisation, interpretive rigour, informant verification, habituation and the observer using strategies to explore and validate interpretations. Using these strategies can allow the benefits of gaining intricate and rich data to prevail over concerns about unreliable data.
• Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterised by a high level of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis.
• When colleting observational data, a choice will need to be made between using an ‘off-the-shelf’ coding schedule and one that students design for their own purpose. Alternatively, they may decide to develop a hybrid schedule that fulfils their research objectives more effectively.
• Structured observation may be affected by observer error, informant error, time error and observer effects. These issues may also be minimised or overcome by those strategies discussed in relation to participant observation and by designing a coding schedule that is free from interpretive ambiguity.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:08:01 GMT 7
CHAPTER 10 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews
• The use of semi-structured and in-depth interviews should allow students to collect a rich and detailed set of data, although they will need to develop a sufficient level of competence to conduct these and to be able to gain access to the type of data associated with their use.
• Interviews can be differentiated according to the level of structure and standardisation adopted.
• Semi-structured and in-depth research interviews can be used to explore topics and explain findings.
• There are situations favouring semi-structured and in-depth interviews that will lead students to use either or both of these to collect data. Apart from the purpose of students’ research, these are related to the significance of establishing personal contact, the nature of data collection questions, and the length of time required from those who provide data.
• Students’ research design may incorporate more than one type of interview.
• Semi-structured and in-depth interviews can be used in a variety of research strategies. • Data quality issues related to reliability, forms of bias and generalisability may be overcome by considering why students have chosen to use interviews, recognising that all research methods have limitations and through careful preparation to conduct interviews to avoid bias that would threaten the reliability and validity of their data.
• The conduct of semi-structured and in-depth interviews will be affected by the appropriateness of the researcher’s appearance, opening comments when the interview commences, approach to questioning, appropriate use of different types of questions, nature of the interviewer’s behaviour during the interview, demonstration of attentive listening skills, scope to summarise and test understanding, ability to deal with difficult participants and ability to record data accurately and fully.
• Logistical and resource matters will need to be considered and managed when students use in-depth and semi-structured interviews.
• Apart from one-to-one interviews conducted on a face-to-face basis, students may consider conducting such interviews by telephone or electronically.
• Students may consider using group interviews or focus group interviews. There may be particular advantages associated with group interviews, but these are considerably more difficult to manage than one-to-one interviews.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:09:16 GMT 7
CHAPTER 11 Collecting primary data using questionnaires
• Questionnaires collect data by asking people to respond to exactly the same set of questions. They are often used as part of a survey strategy to collect descriptive and explanatory data about opinions, behaviours and attributes. Data collected are normally coded and analysed by computer.
• The choice of questionnaire will be influenced by the research question(s) and objectives and the resources that are available. The five main types are Internet or intranet-mediated, postal, delivery and collection, telephone and interview schedule.
• Prior to designing a questionnaire, it is necessary to know precisely what data are needed to collect to answer the research question(s) and to meet the objectives. One way of helping to ensure that these data are collected is to use a data requirements table.
• The validity and reliability of the data collected and the response rate achieved depend largely on the design of the questions, the structure of the questionnaire, and the rigour of the pilot testing. • When designing a questionnaire the wording of individual questions should be considered prior to the order in which they appear. Questions can be divided into open and closed. The six types of closed questions are list, category, ranking, rating, quantity and grid.
• Wherever possible, closed questions should be pre-coded on the questionnaire to facilitate analysis.
• The order and flow of questions in the questionnaire should be logical to the respondent. This can be assisted by filter questions and linking phrases.
• The questionnaire should be laid out so that it is easy to read and the responses are easy to fill in.
• Questionnaires must be introduced carefully to the respondent to ensure a high response rate. For self-administered questionnaires this should take the form of a covering letter; for interviewer-administered questions it will be done by the interviewer.
• All questionnaires should be pilot tested prior to collecting data to assess the validity and likely reliability of the questions.
• Administration of questionnaires needs to be appropriate to the type of questionnaire.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:11:42 GMT 7
CHAPTER 12 ANALYSING QUANTITATIVE DATA
• Data for quantitative analysis can be collected and subsequently coded at different levels of numerical measurement. The data type (precision of measurement) will constrain the data presentation, summary and analysis techniques that students can use. • Data are entered for computer analysis as a data matrix in which each column usually represents a variable and each row a case. The first variable should be a unique identifier to facilitate error checking. • All data should, with few exceptions, be recorded using numerical codes to facilitate analyses. • Where possible, existing coding schemes should be used to enable comparisons. • Primary data collection forms should include pre-set codes form to minimise coding after collection. For variables where responses are not known, a codebook will need to be developed after data have been collected for the first 50 to 100 cases. • Codes should be entered for all data values including missing data. • The data matrix must be checked for errors. • Initial analysis should explore data using both tables and diagrams. The students’ choices of table or diagram will be influenced by their research question(s) and objectives, the aspects of the data they wish to emphasise and the scale of measurement at which the data were recorded. This may involve using: - tables to show specific values;
- bar charts, multiple bar charts histograms and, occasionally, pictograms to show highest and lowest values;
- line graphs to show trends;
- pie charts and percentage component bar charts to show proportions;
- box plots to show distributions;
- scatter graphs to show relationships between variables.
• Subsequent analyses will involve describing the data and exploring relationships using statistics. As before, the choice of statistics will be influenced by the research question(s) and objectives and the scale of measurement at which the data were recorded. The students’ analyses may involve using statistics such as: - the mean, median and mode to describe the central tendency;
- the inter-quartile range and the standard deviation to describe the dispersion;
- chi square, Cramer’s V and phi to test whether two variables are significantly associated;
- Kolmogorov–Smirnov to test whether the values differ significantly from a specified population;
- t-tests and ANOVA to test whether groups are significantly different;
- correlation and regression to assess the strength of relationships between variables.
- regression analysis to predict values.
• Longitudinal data may necessitate selecting different statistical techniques such as: - index numbers to compare trends between two or more variables measured in different units or at different magnitudes;
- moving averages and regression analysis to determine the trend and forecast.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:12:53 GMT 7
CHAPTER 13 ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA
• Qualitative data are rich and full textual and/or visual data that result from using an interpretative approach. They may also be characterised as non-standardised and non-numerical data.
• A qualitative approach involves commencing research from an inductive or deductive perspective.
• Qualitative data need to be carefully prepared for manual or computer-assisted analysis, usually involving transcription.
• There are a number of aids that students might use to help them through the process of qualitative analysis, including: interim summaries, event summaries, document summaries, self-memos, maintaining a research notebook and keeping a reflective diary or reflexive journal. • There are different approaches to analyse data, including generic, inductive and deductive approaches.
• Procedures to analyse data generally share a number of characteristics, including: the interrelated nature of data collection and analysis; the categorisation and unitisation of data; recognising relationships and developing analytical categories and concepts; and developing testable propositions to build or test theory.
• There are some reasons why students might consider counting or quantifying their qualitative data and other reasons when they would avoid this.
• Displaying data is also a useful way to summarise, analyse and understand it.
• A number of specific analytic procedures have been discussed that commence from an inductive perspective: Grounded Theory Method; Template Analysis; Analytic Induction; Narrative Analysis; Discourse Analysis.
• Specific analytic procedures have been discussed that commence from a deductive perspective: Pattern Matching and Explanation Building.
• The use of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) can help during qualitative analysis with regard to project management and data organisation, keeping close to the data, exploration, coding and retrieval of data, searching and interrogating to build propositions and theorise, and recording thoughts systematically.
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Post by MrHo on Dec 24, 2013 3:14:08 GMT 7
CHAPTER 14 Writing and presenting your project report
• Writing is a powerful way of clarifying students’ thinking.
• Writing is a creative process, which needs the right conditions if it is to produce successful results.
• A project report should have a clear structure that enables each student to develop a clear storyline.
• A report should be laid out in such a way that the reader finds all the information readily accessible.
• Each student should try to develop a clear, simple writing style that will make reading their report an easy and enjoyable experience.
• Spelling and grammatical errors should be avoided.
• Do not think of a first draft as the last. Students should be prepared to rewrite a report several times until they think it is the best they can do.
• Failing to prepare for a presentation is preparing to fail. • Visual aids will enhance the understanding of an audience and lend a presentation professionalism.
• Remember: ‘tell them what you’re going to say, say it, and then tell them what you’ve said’.
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